Journal of Interpersonal Violence 8:198-222. Kleck, G. 1984 The relationship between gun ownership levels and rates of violence in the United States. As noted earlier, there are substantive reasons to expect that violence has feedback effects on major dimensions of community structure. The patterning of ecological change parameters with violence changes suggested that in underclass neighborhoods the violence was related to increased relative deprivation, and that in gentrifying neighborhoods the violence was linked to increasing social disorganization. Accordingly, linking the individual, situational, and community levels through contextual specification appears to be a crucial agenda in future studies of violence. We then conclude with a discussion of research strategies that may help alleviate these pitfalls. Similar effects of offending lifestyles on the risk of violent victimization have been shown in longitudinal, multivariate analyses using the National Youth Survey (Lauritsen et al., 1991). Again, however, community-level variations in what may be responses to violence are often simply used as causal predictors of violence. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications. Social Problems 33:81-93. 1986a Why are communities important in understanding crime? 29-150 in M. Tonry and N. Morris, eds., Crime and Justice: An Annual Review of Research, Vol. For example, a concept as seemingly straightforward as "poverty" has been measured in at least 20 different ways, ranging from dichotomous groupings of communities through census-based percentage measures to factor-analytic scores. The UCR data share a similar limitation in that arrest incidents (and not offenders) are used as the unit of analysis. Characteristics of the physical environment related to housing and population density thus appear to increase the level of violent crime regardless of compositional factors.23, Although largely ignored in early ecological research, several recent studies have turned to examination of the community-level. When considered in conjunction with the practices of redlining and disinvestment by banks or "blockbusting" by real estate agents (Skogan, 1986), local policies toward code enforcement-which on the surface seem far removed from crime-have in all likelihood contributed to crime through neighborhood deterioration, forced migration, and instability. New York: Springer-Verlag. For example, it has been suggested that blacks underreport less serious forms of assault and/or that whites overreport minor assaults (Skogan, 1981; Gottfredson, 1986). Also, if the principle of homogamy is correct, then demographic predictors should continue to have direct effects on victimization that are independent of a victim's propensity for criminal offending. Messner, S., and J. Blau 1987 Routine leisure activities and rates of crime: A macro-level analysis. As Garofalo (1987) posits in a recent revision of lifestyle theory, the structural constraint of residential proximity to crime has a direct effect on victimization that is unmediated by individual lifestyle. Accordingly, a major component of Shaw and McKay's theory was that heterogeneous, low-income, urban communities spawned the formation of delinquent organizations (e.g., gangs) with their own subcultures and norms perpetuated through cultural transmission.24. These general differences among individuals that are stable over time have profound implications for an ecological study of crime. Although the analysis of "events" may at first seem unproblematic, designating "situational-level" factors is neither easy nor obvious. First, involvement in violent behavior is a fairly well known risk for violent victimization and so violent behavior is included in some of the statistical models examined. Fisher, J. Bridges and Weis (1989), in their meta-analysis, also examined variation in the social class-violent crime association. A good example can be seen in the case of race, one of the most important individual-level correlates of violence as shown earlier. As Bursik (1988) and others (e.g., see Short, 1969; Morris, 1970) have argued, few works in criminology have had more influence than Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas (Shaw and McKay, 1942). 81. Conclusions about the correlates of violence are naturally linked to the universe of studies under consideration. In community contexts of poverty at least, mobility appeared to have important consequences for violence. Within these three-way associations, age continues to have the largest independent effect followed by sex and race. 1983 Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago 1940-1960 . Are communities safe or unsafe because of the persons who reside in them or because of community properties themselves? Felson and Cohen (1980; see also Cohen and Felson, 1979) also note the potential influence of family structure not just on the control of offenders, but on the control of criminal targets and opportunities. The reason is that what seem to be "noncrime" policies (e.g.. where or if to build a housing project, enforcement of municipal codes, reduction in essential municipal services, rehabilitation of existing residential units, disbursement of the disadvantaged) can have important indirect effects on violence. Wolfgang, M. 1958 Patterns in Criminal Homicide. Bursik (1989) has shown that the planned construction of new public housing projects in Chicago in the 1970s was associated with increased rates of population turnover, which in turn were related to increases in crime-independent of racial composition. Schlesselmann, J. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 20-40%. The unique value of a multilevel perspective is that it leads away from a simple ''kinds of people" analysis to a focus on how social characteristics of collectivities foster violence. on violent victimization in urban areas once racial composition and divorce rates were controlled (Sampson, 1985a, 1986a). and control of violence. The causal nature of the relationship between achieved adult characteristics (e.g., employment status) and adult crime is thus fraught with methodological difficulties. The book illuminates specific types of victimization and how they are portrayed in criminological literature and the press, most notably within The New York Times. In this paper we assume theoretical compatibility between the lifestyle and routine activity approaches (see especially Maxfield, 1987; Garofalo, 1987). (r = .43) with violent crime rates (1988:39) and percent nonwhite (r = .59), but despite significant effects on violent crime independent of mobility and poverty in multivariate regressions, racial heterogeneity was rendered insignificant once family structure (percent single-parent families) was controlled. Yet as Reiss (1986a:27) argues, ethnographies provide limited tests of theories by focusing on a single community or, at most, on a cluster of neighborhoods in which community properties do not display sufficient variation. One of the fundamental claims made by Shaw and McKay (1942) was that population change and turnover had negative consequences for the social control of delinquency. assault). The first factor was termed a population structure component and consisted of population size and population density. Are these differences stable over recent time periods? They described the high-rate areas as those with the "lowest socioeconomic status, most undesirable neighborhood conditions, greatest financial dependency, the most acute problems of space and crowded housing conditions, the least stability of the population, the greatest social maladjustment and family and individual adjustment problems, and the poorest health" (Bensing and Schroeder, 1960:184). Smith and Visher (1980) conducted a meta-analysis of studies. Recent evidence suggests that the homicide rate for juveniles is rising faster than for adults. Second, Sampson and Groves (1989) analyzed the British Crime Survey (BCS), a nationwide survey of England and Wales conducted in 1982 and 1984. Similarly, a victim's use of weapons was also associated with a higher risk of death for the victim. 1989 Criminal Victimization in the United States, 1987. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 77:1142-1158. ", Despite the major focus on nondifferentiated delinquency rates in ecological research, three studies in the mid-twentieth century did underscore the role of community-level socioeconomic status in delineating patterns of violence. Complicating matters further, researchers have employed many different analytical techniques and styles of data presentation. However, the inclusion of a crude measure of out-of-home activities (divided at the median) had a significant effect on the risk of violent victimization (robbery, assault, and sexual assault): persons who spent more time away from home were approximately three times more likely to be victimized than persons who centered their time at home. Relying on Liebow's research, Kornhauser (1978:20) further critiques cultural theories by asserting, The "culture" thus constructed is not an authentic subculture, nor are its "values" objects of genuine commitment. Sexual victimization is a major social problem: over 160,000 rapes and 152,000 attempted rapes were reported to police in the United States in 1993, resulting in a combined incidence rate for rape and attempted rape of approximately 750 per 100,000 American women (Bastian, 1995). Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas. However, research by Blumstein et al. More generally, Skogan (1986:206) notes how urban renewal and forced migration contributed to the wholesale uprooting of many urban communities, especially the extent to which freeway networks driven through the hearts of many cities in the. Berkeley: University of California Press. Overall, though, NCS victim reports suggest that most of the race difference found in arrest rates for violence is due to greater black involvement in personal crimes. (1978) for example, found that the most important predictors of personal victimization were age, marital status, sex, and employment status: young, single, unemployed males had the highest risk of personal victimization.10 Cohen et al. 1978 Race and involvement in common-law personal crimes. Unfortunately, it is evident that numerous problems plague this sort of research, especially inferences as to the causal status of community characteristics. Racial crossover is especially rare in nonfelony homicide (Cook, 1987). Black inmates, on the other hand, are just as likely not to be married as blacks in the general population (U.S. Department of Justice, 1988a). Journal of Quantitative Criminology 3:371-393. Ohlin, L., and M. Tonry, eds. Cambridge, Mass. In a violent crime, a victim is harmed by or threatened with violence. Loeber, R., and M. Stouthamer-Loeber 1986 Family factors as correlates and predictors of juvenile conduct problems and delinquency. 1985a Neighborhood and crime: The structural determinants of personal victimization. The results are quite consistent and substantively interpretable. 1987; U.S. Department of Justice, 1989). Moreover, increased involvement in offending "lifestyles"-either through increases in time spent with delinquent peers or through one's own offending-had large positive effects on robbery and assault victimization, controlling for race, age, sex, family structure, family income, neighborhood characteristics, and prior propensity toward victimization. Pp. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice. Because it is suspected that victims generally underreport victimizations by nonstrangers, it seems reasonable to suggest that rape and assault are, more often than not, crimes occurring among nonstrangers. Major daytime activity as measured was found to have no significant independent effect on risk of violent victimization. New York: Springer-Verlag. Coping with Crime Victimization. Urban minorities have also been especially vulnerable to structural economic changes related to the deindustrialization of central cities (e.g., shift from goods-producing to service-producing industries, increasing polarization of the labor market into low-wage and high-wage sectors, "high-tech" innovations, and relocation of manufacturing out of the inner city). Criminology 24:297-318. The problem with this approach is that crime and its consequences (e.g., fear) may themselves have important effects on community structure, thereby confounding easy interpretation of the relationships among community social phenomena and crime. On the other hand, it is also suspected that assault incidents among friends and family are underreported in victimization studies. Criminology 24:235-268. Although infrequently studied, recent research by Roncek and colleagues (Roncek, 1981; Roncek et al., 1981; Roncek and Faggiani, 1986) has highlighted the potential role that the physical structure and density of housing may play in understanding patterns of violent crime. Consequently, detailed accounts of male-female differences in violent offending are rare (see Kruttschnitt, in this volume). Sexual assault seems to be unrelated to social status. Liska and Reed (1985) considered. Additionally, the measurement of "social class" is a concern (Thornberry and Farnworth, 1982; Brownfield, 1986). Relatedly, predatory street violence is often accompanied by commercial decline and business relocation out of inner-city areas where there is a perceived risk of violence against the customer population. For example, survey measures could be constructed to capture community-level patterns of informal social control, friendship networks, subcultural values, rates of organizational participation, and much more. Bursik (1986) showed that delinquency rates greatly accelerated processes of neighborhood decline in Chicago from 1950 to 1970. Gordon, R. 1967 Issues in the ecological study of delinquency. Additional limitations of the class-violence literature are discussed by Thornberry and Farnworth (1982), who argue that although the overall relationship between class and juvenile violence is weak, the relationship among adults may be stronger. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 24:291-301. Journal of Quantitative Criminology 4:363-382. Social Problems 34:437-450. Short, J.F., Jr. 1963 Introduction to the abridged edition. Contrariwise. Results showed that both components had significant negative effects on black family disruption, which again had positive effects on black violence rates. Increasingly, violence is being viewed as a public health issue, just like smoking, so similar approaches for identifying and reducing risks are now being investigated. The official data problem has been addressed in two basic ways. Inequality is thought to generate subjective feelings of relative deprivation and latent hostility, leading to criminal acts of violence born of frustration (e.g., see Messner, 1982; Blau and Blau, 1982; Balkwell, 1990). Bordua, D. 1958 Juvenile delinquency and "anomie": An attempt at replication. The role of poverty and economic status in understanding violence at the community level is thus not altogether clear. Pp. Hindelang, M., T. Hirschi, and J. Weis 1979 Correlates of delinquency: The illusion of discrepancy between self-report and official measures. Felson and Steadman point out that in assault cases, the role of victims' behaviors is more complex than the concept of "victim precipitation" (Wolfgang, 1958) suggests. In light of these findings, Miethe et al. Gender was also not considered in this analysis, apparently for theoretical reasons. For example, Block (1979) showed that homicide rates were significantly and substantially related to percent black (r = .69), as did Beasley and Antunes (1974), Mladenka and Hill (1976), Messner and Tardiff (1986), Sampson (1985a), Roncek (1981), and Smith and Jarjoura (1988). New York: Springer-Verlag. In this regard we believe that Kornhauser's attack on subcultural theories misses the point. It is possible that individual-level correlates of victimization and offending are the same because of the structural or situational contexts in which particular demographic subgroups typically find themselves. Gidycz, and N. Wisniewski 1987 The scope of rape: Incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students. Disparities in risk and use of victim services are examined using data from the National Crime Victims, victimization and victimology Victims means persons who, individually or collectively, have suffered harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering, economic loss or substantial impairment of their fundamental rights, through acts or omissions that are in violation of criminal laws operative within Member States, including those laws proscribing criminal … Their description of Cleveland homicide areas reads like Shaw and McKay's account of delinquency areas in Chicago some 30 years earlier. Consequently, situations with similar characteristics but different outcomes (i.e., violence and nonviolence) are difficult to compare. These factors-nighttime and daytime activities away from the home-were considered by Miethe et al. This includes describing the scope of these crimes, such as how and when they occur and their consequences. This revised text highlights new and emerging technology, discusses the importance of analytic context for ensuring successful implementation of advanced analytics in the operational setting, and covers new analytic service delivery models ... Feeney, F., and A. Weir 1975 The prevention and control of robbery. Miethe et al. Tienda, M. 1989 Poor People and Poor Places: Deciphering Neighborhood Effects on Behavioral Outcomes. Criminology 17:46-57. There are clearly many weaknesses in the community-level literature that need explication, especially regarding interpretations of causality and the authenticity of cultural attitudes promoting violence. Finally, of the common indicators of an individual's socioeconomic status, unemployment is most strongly related to the risk of violent victimization (U.S. Department of Justice, 1989). Yet as Levin and Lindesmith (1937:801) have correctly observed, social scientists often "attribute greater originality to contemporary studies and less value to the old than is actually warranted by the facts in the case."

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